Sunday, October 3, 2010

Trace mineral balance in poultry

Trace mineral balance in poultry
Monday, 01 December 2008 01:00
Print

Sheila E. SCHEIDELER, Dept. of Animal Science, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, U.S.A.

Introduction

Trace mineral nutrition has a rich history of discovery and research in the field of poultry nutrition. Many of the early basic nutrient metabolism studies were conducted in chicks and then related to other livestock species and humans. The bulk of this work was conducted and reported in the era from 1960-1980. Nutrient requirements were established for each species of poultry and functions of those nutrients – trace minerals were also researched and reported. More recently, in the past 25 years, trace minerals role in immune function and related physiological roles have been studied. New organic sources of trace minerals have been patented and marketed providing a more available form of trace minerals for the chicken or turkey. The complexity of trace mineral nutrition requires a thorough review of functions, interactions and availability of sources from time to time by the poultry producer/nutritionist. The intent of this presentation is to do such a review of established functions and roles, as well as new opportunities for trace minerals in the field of poultry nutrition. The trace minerals of primary concern in poultry diets and having recommended levels of supplementation by the NRC (1994) Nutrient Requirements of Poultry include Zinc (Zn), Manganese (Mn), Copper (Cu), Iron (Fe), Selenium (Se) and Iodine (I). The trace minerals typically supplemented in poultry premixes include Zn, Mn, Cu, Fe and I. Selenium is very often supplemented either in the premix or separate from the premix formulation. Trace mineral premixes should be formulated and supplemented to poultry feeds separate from the vitamin premix due to potential vitamin oxidation by the trace minerals. Inclusion levels are often very small ranging from .05 to .50 percent which means that weighing (scales) needs to be quite accurate and mixing needs to be thorough for the trace mineral premix to be adequately distributed in a batch of poultry feed.

Functions of trace minerals

Zinc plays an important role in poultry, particularly for layers, as a component of a number of metalloenzymes such as carbonic anhydrase which is essential for eggshell formation in the hens shell gland. Other important zinc metalloenzymes in the hen include carboxypeptidases and DNA polymerases. These enzymes play important roles in the hens immune response, in skin and wound healing, and for hormone production (testosterone and corticosteroids). Classic deficiency symptoms of a zinc deficiency in poultry could include a suppressed immune system, poor feathering and dermatitis, infertility and poor shell quality.

Copper also plays an important role in a number of enzyme functions in the bird. Copper is closely associated with iron metabolism as it is a part of ceruloplasmin which is an enzyme that plays an important role in the oxidation of ferrous to ferric iron, controlling the movement of iron from the reticuloendothelium to liver and then plasma, affecting red blood cell formation. A copper deficiency can cause microcytic hypochromic anemia. Another important enzyme dependent on copper is lysyl oxidase which is an integral enzyme in elastin and collagen formation in birds. A deficiency of copper can cause bone abnormalities due to abnormal collagen synthesis. Tibial dyschondroplasia is an example of a leg disorder in poultry that can be caused by a copper deficiency. Poor collagen and/or elastin formation can also lead to cardiovascular lesions and aortic ruptures. Copper is also important for feather development as well as feather colour via it’s role in disulfide bond formation. Iron has a very specific function in all animals as a component of the protein heme found in the red blood cell’s protein haemoglobin and in the muscle cell’s protein myoglobin. Iron has a rapid turnover rate in the chicken – 10 X per day, so it must be provided in a highly available form in the bird’s diet on a daily basis. Any internal infection such as coccidiosis can also interfere with iron absorption and availability. Iron deficiency can result in microcytic, hypochromic anemia in poultry.

Manganese plays a significant role in the chicken’s body in the formation of chondroitin sulfate. This mucopolysaccharide is an important component of bone cartilage. Deficiencies of manganese in poultry will result in perosis, bone shortening and bowing and in poor eggshell quality in laying hens. Selenium is a very unique trace mineral in the chicken’s diet in that it’s inclusion rate is regulated and limited by the FDA. Selenium is considered a heavy metal in manure and is limited in its soil application. Selenium was recognized for its toxicity in animal diets before it’s essentiality was established.

Selenium is an important constituent of the enzyme glutathione peroxidase. Glutathione peroxidase functions in the cell as its first line of defence against oxidation. Other selenoproteins in poultry play an important role in prevention of exudative diathesis, normal pancreatic function, and fertility. Levels of selenium supplementation are limited by the FDA to only .30 ppm in poultry diets. Levels of selenium in feedstuffs for poultry can vary considerably dependent on soil content of selenium the crops are grown on. Soils in the Dakotas and Canada can contain high levels of selenium resulting in higher grain levels of selenium. Often times, total selenium of poultry diets in our plains states will reach levels of .40 to .50 ppm when corn and soybean levels are combined with .30 ppm supplementation levels. These high levels can to be beneficial to the immune status and performance of poultry flocks without being toxic. Dietary selenium works with Vitamin E in boosting the immune status of poultry.

Interactions

A number of negative interactions can occur such that an excess of one trace mineral will interfere with another trace mineral’s availability. The most common antagonism occurs between zinc and copper. High levels of dietary zinc will inhibit copper absorption, hepatic accumulation and deposition in the egg. Ratios greater than 4:1 of zinc:copper can be considered antagonistic. High levels of copper and iron can interfere with zinc availability and potentially could induce anemia. Excess dietary phosphorus will interfere with manganese availability in poultry. Environmental factors such as water, equipment and or soil conditions for crops may also contribute to a birds exposure to excessive trace minerals. Many soils in the Midwest have an abundance of manganese and zinc which can correspond to sometimes higher levels in the corn grown on these soils as well as high drinking water levels of some of the trace minerals. All of these potential sources need to be accounted for when calculating the birds consumption rate of trace minerals.

Dietary sources of trace minerals

Traditionally, inorganic sources of trace minerals have been utilized in poultry feed supplements. Trace minerals as inorganic salts such as chlorides, sulfates, carbonates and oxides have all been supplemented to poultry diets. In general, the chloride and sulfate forms are more available than the carbonates, with the oxides having the poorest availability. During recent years, organic chelates and bioplexes of trace minerals have become available for supplementation in poultry diets. A trace mineral bioplex is defined as a trace mineral with ligands to amino acids or proteins. A number of companies have patented organic trace mineral products. Research has indicated that these inorganic sources are more bioavailable than their inorganic counterparts due to the following reasons:

1. The ring structure protects the mineral from unwanted chemical reactions in the gut
2. Chelates are absorbed more efficiently in the gut.
3. Fewer interactions occur between competing minerals for absorption sites.

Numerous studies have reported beneficial effects of chelated organic trace mineral supplementation on bird health and production parameters as well as product quality.

Research (UNL):

Study 1. Trace mineral supplementation effects on eggshell strength.
Supplemental trace minerals play a significant role in eggshell formation as co-factors and/or structural components of enzyme systems such as carbonic anhydrase which are inherently involved in eggshell formation. Ceylan and Scheideler, (1999) reported significant positive effects of zinc and manganese supplementation from Bioplex Zn and Mn (Alltech) on carbonic anhydrase activity levels in the shell gland of laying hens and a correlated improvement in percent dry shell of eggs laid. Percent cracked eggs during processing, was also reduced by supplementation of zinc and manganese to the layer diets. Increasing dietary calcium from 3.5 % to 4.0 % (Ceylan and Scheideler, 1999) also improved eggshell quality and carbonic anhydrase activity in the shell gland.

articoli/NTR_2008_12/NTR_2008_12_Tab1.gif


2. Effects of supplemental selenium on vitelline membrane strength (UNL)
Monsalve and Scheideler (2004) studied the effects of 2 selenium sources (selenium selenite and Sel-plex) at 2 dietary levels (0.55 or 0.75 ppm) in laying hen diets and their effects on production and vitelline membrane strength. The higher level of dietary selenium resulted in a 2 percent increase in egg production and a 1 gram increase in egg mass produced during this short trial. Increasing dietary selenium improved vitelline membrane strength in both fresh and stored (aged) eggs. Dietary source of selenium had no effect on vitelline membrane strength, but did affect yolk selenium content. Yolks from hens fed the Sel-plex source of selenium had greater amounts of selenium deposited in the egg yolk compared to yolks from hens fed the inorganic source of selenium, indicating improved availability of selenium from the organic source – Sel-plex. Research is on-going at a number of institutions regarding the improved bioavailability of trace minerals from organic sources and their role in the poultry diet. Leeson (2005) boldly proposed reducing the overall amount of trace mineral supplementation to 20 % of the regular level of inorganic level of supplementation with reduced performance criteria.

Summary

With new research being published showing improved utilization of organic trace minerals, the poultry nutritionist has to contemplate the validity of the NRC Nutrient Recommendations for Poultry (1994) and how one can formulate rations more responsibly using organic trace minerals. With the stress to reduce flow of waste nutrients into the environment, poultry producers may be able to reduce overall supplementation of trace minerals, yet still receive optimum performance when using organic trace elements.

References

Leeson, S., 2005. Trace mineral requirements of poultry – validity of the NRC recommendations. Published in “Re-defining Mineral Nutrition” edited by JA Taylor-Pickard and LA Tucker, Nottingham University Press, Nottingham, United Kingdom.

Monsalve, D., G. Froning, M. Beck and S.E. Scheideler, 2004. The effects of supplemental dietary Vitamin E and selenium from two sources on egg production and vitelline membrane strength in laying hens. Poultry Sci. 83: Supplement 1, p. 168.

Ceylan, N. and S.E. Scheideler, 1999. Effects of Eggshell 49, dietary calcium level and hen age on performance and egg shell quality. Proceedings of Alltech’s 15th Annual Symposium, Biotechnology in the Feed Industry.

From Proceedings of the “Midwest Poultry Federation Convention”, St. Paul, Minnesota, U.S.A.

How valid are the National Research Council nutrient requirement estimates for poultry?

How valid are the National Research Council nutrient requirement estimates for poultry?
PUBLICATION DATE: 06/03/2007
RATING
AUTHOR: STEVEN LEESON - University of Guelph (Courtesy of Alltech Inc.)
The National Research Council (NRC) is the last surviving independent organization to publish nutrient requirement data for farm, pet and lab animal species.


The published values are often accepted as ‘standards’ especially in developing countries, and by government organizations charged with establishing guidelines for legislation. The question often asked is “are NRC values of commercial relevance today?” and if not, “what is the basis for such discrepancies?”


The National Research Council operates under the mandate of the National Academy of Sciences based in Washington, D.C. Over the last 50 years, the NRC has itself formed subcommittees in order to define the nutrient requirements of various animal species including most of the important farmed animals together with needs for laboratory animals, cats and dogs. Over the last 20 years, the Poultry Subcommittee has published recommendations on nutrient requirements each 7-10 years (1977, 1984, 1994). In Europe, the now defunct Agricultural Research Council likewise published nutrient recommendations for farm animals, again every 10 years or so.


The mandate of the NRC species subcommittees is to provide unbiased reviews and recommendations regarding the nutrient requirements of the various animal species. The last NRC Poultry Subcommittee was established in 1990, the outcome of which was the 9th Revised Edition of Nutrient Requirements of Poultry published in 1994. Within this publication are nutrient requirements for egg-layers, breeders, broilers, turkeys, pheasant and waterfowl. In establishing any nutrient requirement value, the committee members are given one simple, albeit very restrictive directive, and that is to base such values only on data published in referred journals. The idea behind this mandate is to prevent the use of potentially biased commercial data. This directive is particularly restrictive to estimating certain nutrient needs, since there has been a lack of scientific research and publication on many topics over the last 40 years.


This situation dictates the reliance on very dated literature estimates of certain nutrient needs. On the other hand, everyone recognizes the increase in growth rate of broilers and turkeys that has occurred over the last 40 years, and the increased egg output of modern layer strains. For this reason, the NRC estimates are often criticized as not representing the needs of modern strains of commercial poultry.


Much of the older data are based on research studies involving purified or semi-purified diets. In fact, the NRC (1994) publication has a section solely related to description of reference diets used in classical requirement studies. These diets often contain isolated soybean protein or casein as a source of protein and amino acids, and dextrose, starch and sucrose as a source of energy. Cellulose was often used as non-nutritive filler in these purified diets. Such diets are highly digestible, and are not encumbered with facets of variable nutrient availability, yet can be criticized as not being of relevance to commercial feeding. It is very difficult to crumble/pellet diets with these purified ingredients, and today mash diets are obviously of little relevance to the broiler and turkey industries.


Although the foregoing discussion highlights inadequacies in NRC published values, NRC still provides the best unbiased assessment. The reader has to be aware of the relevant potential confounding factors, and adjust actual feeding levels accordingly. Just as no two commercial broiler starter diets will ever be identical, formulating all nutrients within a diet solely to NRC (1984) levels shows a lack of understanding of nutrition and feed management.


Another factor of relevance today in establishing diet nutrient specifications is the trend towards specialization in nutrition. Certainly, many broiler nutritionists will never formulate diets for laying hens, while turkey nutritionists have little interest in specifications for egg laying stock. Our degree of specialization leads us to source more specific material, while NRC provides a general overview of all species. In research, specialization tends to be even more extreme, where researchers in amino acid metabolism, for example, at best pay cursory attention to trace mineral levels in their diets. In fact the complexity of research today dictates that we can answer questions on at best a very limited number of nutrients at any one time.


While the requirement tables were eventually published in 1994, the information base for the latest Nutrient Requirements of Poultry were collated in 1991, making the ‘current’ information now some 14 years old. Fourteen years is a long time in terms of productive performance of layers, broilers and turkeys. Obviously growth rate and egg mass output have increased in this period, and for some traits this is in the order of +20%. All research becomes ‘dated’ quite quickly, relative to the ongoing changes in genetic gain, and this situation must be a consideration in reviewing historical dated information.


Another major factor to consider in reviewing NRC (1994) data is the assessment criteria used to establish various nutrient requirements. For broiler chickens, virtually all nutrients are assessed in terms of optimizing growth rate, while for layers, the measurement criteria is simply egg production and egg weight. Over the last 20 years, commercial goals have evolved, and these impinge on nutrient needs and feeding programs. For the broiler chicken, the needs for lysine now relate to not merely growth and feed utilization, but also breast meat yield and carcass quality per se. Broiler chickens today are marketed over a vast range of weights/ages and in some instances these may be as mixed-sex or separate sex flocks. Most broiler genetic companies also have stock with different growth and carcass characteristics. In the future, we may also produce broilers with enhanced meat nutrient profile relative to human nutrition. Yet another major change has been the move to controlled environment housing of broilers, which itself impinges on the birds’ nutrient needs and growth potential. Of late, there has been the impetus to consider manure loading of nutrients during formulation of most poultry diets.


An interesting scenario has occurred with broilers since 1994, and that highlights the importance of continual need for reappraisal of feeding systems. In the mid-1990s, metabolic disorders such as ascites, sudden death syndrome, and leg disorders together accounted for 3-5% mortality in male broilers. In order to counteract such problems, it was common to feed lower energy and/or lower nutrient dense diets, at least for part of the grow-out period. Today such disorders are much less problematic, due to genetic selection, and consequently there is little need for any period of under nutrition. Consequently over a 15 year period we have gone from a situation of selecting nutrients for maximum growth followed by a 5-6 year period of consideration for tempering growth, back to today’s goal of maximum growth rate.


For egg production we no longer have the luxury of formulating solely for egg numbers per se, which is the basis for much of the NRC published nutrient values. There is now interest in egg composition, both in terms of nutrient profile as it impacts human nutrition, as well as component/solid yield for egg processing. There has always been concern about optimizing egg shell quality, and this becomes more critical today with white egg strains capable of producing 330 eggs in 365 days within reasonably large commercial flocks. The current trend of maintaining layers at 26- 28oC in modern housing systems imposes a fairly predictable limit to feed intake, and so allows for greater precision in selection of diet nutrient levels.


These evolving on-farm conditions, together with advances in feed processing, mean that nutritionists cannot expect that single nutrient values, whatever the source, will be applicable to feeding birds under all farm conditions.


To this point, this paper has focused on the validity of NRC (1994) values for the major nutrients. We invariably question these nutrient values most frequently, since they are the most expensive nutrients, and usually have greatest impact on performance and there is continuous release of ‘new’ information. Over the last few years, we have been re-evaluating trace mineral needs of poultry, and in this instance NRC (1994) is essentially the only reference. There has been a dearth of information on requirements for trace minerals, essentially due to the fact that they usually contribute less than 0.5% to the cost of a diet. There has been little trace mineral research conducted in the last 10 years, and even within the NRC (1994) publication, many trace mineral requirement values are based on quite dated research. Most commercial diets provide 2-5× the level of trace minerals relative to NRC (1994) values. While NRC (1994) values are often referred to as minimal values, for other nutrients such as amino acids, we do not usually provide such 2-5× levels of ‘insurance’ as occurs with the trace minerals (and vitamins). One reason for concern with trace minerals is consistency of quality and availability of the mineral within inorganic salts.


We have previously reported on the success in using drastically lower levels of trace minerals (80% less in the diet) provided by BioplexTM proteinates of consistently high and predictable bioavailability. The impetus for this work was reduction in manure loading of minerals, especially zinc and copper (Leeson, 2003).


Broilers grew at comparable rates, while excreting 38% less zinc and 20% less copper in the manure. We have confirmed these results in a subsequent study, in which broilers were fed inorganic trace minerals or just 7% of the same level of minerals as a BioplexTM source, and again observed comparable performance. We have subsequently conducted a trial with laying hens, again using BioplexTM vs inorganic sources of trace minerals (Table 1). In this 32 week study, layers were fed conventional inorganic trace minerals, just 20% of these levels as BioplexTM minerals, or diets totally devoid of trace minerals. Birds fed inorganics or BioplexTM minerals performed the same, while those fed diets devoid of minerals produced slightly fewer eggs with reduced egg size. Layers fed BioplexTM or no trace minerals produced manure with identical levels of Zn, Mn and Cu. In both cases, the levels of zinc in manure were reduced by 67% while for manganese and copper, manure output was reduced by 80% and 10%, respectively.


Table 1. Effect of trace mineral source on egg production (28-60 weeks age).

To enlarge the image, click here
NS, no significant difference.
1- 28 day period.
2- 20% of inorganic mineral level.



These recent findings with trace minerals suggest that the ‘low’ values published by NRC (1994) are probably more appropriate today than they were at time of publication, when environmental issues were not being considered.


The NRC (1994) values for nutrient requirement are a sound starting point for formulation of commercial poultry diets. A single source of requirement values is unlikely to be considered by any nutritionist, and this situation applies to NRC values. Likewise no one set of standards can be applicable to the array of commercial situations that arise during feeding, and it is evident that all requirement values must be periodically scrutinized so as to accommodate improved genetic potential of birds. Nutrient needs also must be reassessed as our end-point goals change, and this is exemplified with impending legislation in metal accumulation in manure.



References

Leeson, S. 2003. A new look at trace mineral nutrition of poultry. In: Nutritional Biotechnology in the Feed and Food Industries. (T.P. Lyons and K.A. Jacques, eds) Nottingham Univ. Press, Notts, UK.


National Research Council. 1994. Nutrient Requirements of Poultry. 9th Rev. Ed. NAS-NRC, Washington, D.C.




Author: STEVEN LEESON
Animal & Poultry Science, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada
PUBLICATION DATE: 06/03/2007
RATING
AUTHOR: STEVEN LEESON - University of Guelph (Courtesy of Alltech Inc.)

Tuesday, September 28, 2010

Biodata Syahrir Akil

A.Data Pribadi
-Nama : Dr. Syahrir Akil, S.Pt
-Jenis Kelamin : Pria
-Tempat dan Tanggal Lahir : Watampone, 5 Februari 1973
-Status Pernikahan : Menikah
-Agama : Islam
-Suku/Bangsa : Bugis/Indonesia
-Alamat : Jln.A.P.Pettarani, BTN Pemda Blok – E21,No:18
Makassar – Sulawesi Selatan
-Email : syahrirakil@gmail.com
-Blog : http://poultrybusinessconsultant.blogspot.com
-Mobile Phone : 0816 800 346
B.Pendidikan
-SD Neg.No.10 Watampone – Kab.Bone, Tahun 1985.
-SMP Neg.2 Watampone – Kab.Bone, Tahun 1988.
-SMA Neg.1 Watampone – Kab. Bone, Tahun 1991.
-S-1, Fak.Peternakan UNHAS, Tahun 1996.
-S-2 dan S-3, Program Ilmu Ternak (PTK), Nutrisi Unggas,
Sekolah Pasca Sarjana, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Tahun
2009.
C. Pengalaman Kerja
-Asisten Luar Biasa Pada Mata Kuliah : Fisiologi Ternak,
Biokimia Nutrisi, Dasar Ilmu Reproduksi Ternak, Ilmu
Tilik Ternak, Dasar Ilmu Ternak Perah, Dasar Ilmu Ternak
Potong, Parasitologi dan Kesehatan Ternak, Inseminasi
Buatan, Ilmu Tatalaksana Ternak Perah, Fak. Peternakan Universitas Hasanuddin &
Universitas 45, Tahun 1993 –Tahun 1996.
-Supervisor Produksi, PT.Satwa Utama RayaIV – Surabaya (Breeding Farm),Charoen
Pokphand Indonesia Group, Tahun 1997.
-Supervisor Produksi , PT.Satwa Utama Raya V – Maros(Breeding Farm), Charoen Pokphand
Indonesia Group,Tahun 1997 – Tahun 1998.
-Kepala Produksi, PT.SUR – PIR – Makassar (Broiler Integration, Charoen Pokphand Indonesia Group, Tahun 1998 – Tahun 2000.
-Pimpinan Cabang PT.Bina Pratama Satwa (Broiler Integration) – Makassar (Broiler
Integration),Charoen Pokphand Indonesia Group, Tahun 2000 – Tahun 2003.
-Pimpinan Cabang PT.Aneka Perkasa (Broiler Integration) – Nusa Tenggara Barat, Charoen Pokphand Indonesia Group, Tahun 2003 – Tahun 2004.
-Area Manager Technical Service and Development, Jawa Tengah dan Jawa Barat,PT.Charoen Pokphand Indonesia, Tahun 2004 – Tahun 2006.
-Area Manager Technical Service & Development, Jawa Barat, Jabodetabek (Divisi
Broiler), PT.Charoen Pokphand Indonesia, Tahun 2006 – Tahun 2007.
-Deputy General Manager Customer Care,Technical Service and Development, Area Jawa
Barat,PT.Charoen Pokphand Indonesia, Tahun 2007 – Tahun 2009.
-General Manager Customer Care,Technical Service and Development, Area Jawa
Barat,PT.Charoen Pokphand Indonesia, Tahun 2010 – Sekarang.
C.Seminar dan Pelatihan
-Aktif mengikuti Seminar,Pelatihan baik sebagai Peserta
maupun sebagai Pemakalah. (Dalam Negeri dan Luar Negeri).
D.Artikel/Tulisan
Beberapa Artikel/Tulisan yang telah diterbitkan di Buletin
Charoen Pokphand Indonesia :
-Adakah Kehidupan Tanpa Air, Buletin CP Pebruari 2004.
-Gelap dan Terang, Apa Manfaatnya Bagi Broiler, Buletin
CP November 2004.
-Cekaman Panas Pada Unggas, Buletin CP Oktober 2004.
-Kholin Untuk Ternak Unggas, Buletin CP Januari 2005.
-Prinsip Penggunaan Antibiotika, Buletin CP Maret 2005.
-Tips Pencegahan & Pengawasan Pullorum, Buletin CP Juni 2005.
-Menghitung Kebutuhan Air Untuk Vaksin Melalui AirMinum, Buletin CP November 2005.
-Waspadai Amoniak Pada Broiler, Buletin CP Oktober 2005.
-Uniformity Atau Keseragaman Pada Ayam Suatu HalYang Tidak Bisa Ditawar, Buletin CP
Juli 2005.
-Menghitung Kebutuhan Konsumsi Pakan Untuk Layer,Buletin CP Desember 2005.
-Kompetensi Bagi Karyawan Kandang, Buletin CP Juni 2006.
-Kendalikan Biosecurity Dari Hulu Ke Hilir, Buletin CP Mei 2007.
-Budidaya Broiler, Harus Ada Sinergisme Antara Bagian Produksi Dengan Bagian
Pemasaran, Buletin CP Juli 2007.
-Spray Ozon Membunuh Escherichia coli Pada Proses Pengolahan Pangan, Buletin CP
Oktober 2007.
-Jangan Biarkan Ayam Anda Sakit, Buletin CP Maret 2008.
E. Publikasi
- Pengaruh Penggunaan Daun Mengkudu Yang Di
Fermentasi, Diensilase Terhadap Performans Ayam
Broiler (Akreditasi), Tahun 2005.
-Pengaruh Penambahan Kaolin Dalam Pakan
Komersial Pada ayam Broiler (CP 707) & Ayam
Kampung (CP 808), Tahun 2006.
-Pengkayaan Selenium Organik, Selenium Inorganik,
Vitamin E Dalam Produk Puyuh & Pengaruhnya
Terhadap Performans Serta Potensi Telur Puyuh
Sebagai sumber Antioksidan (Akreditasi, Tahun
2009).
F. Prestasi dan Penghargaan
- Mahasiswa Teladan Fak.Peternakan Universitas
Hasanuddin, Tahun 1995.
-Lulusan Terbaik Jurusan Produksi Ternak Pada
Wisuda September 1996,Fak. Peternakan Unhas.
-The Best Performance Tingkat Section Head &
Manager Integration East Area – Tahun 2003.
-Penghargaan 10 Tahun dari Manajemen PT.Charoen
Pokphand Indonesia, Tahun 2008.
G.Disertasi
- Pengkayaan Selenium Organik, Inorganik dan Vitamin E dalam Produk Puyuh Melalui Suplementasi dalam Ransum Serta Potensi Telur Puyuh sebagai Bahan Pembuat Juice Telur Kaya Selenium
H. Organisasi
-Ketua Badan Pertimbangan Organisasi – Himpunan Mahasiswa Profesi Peternakan – Universitas Hasanuddin (HMPP – UH), Tahun 1995.
-Ketua Komite Sekolah, SMK Neg. 1 Lombok, Tahun 2003.
-Ketua Forum Mahasiswa Pasca Sarjana Asal Sulawesi Selatan, Tahun 2007 – Tahun 2008
-Wakil Ketua Forum Mahasiswa Pasca Sarjana Institut Pertanian Bogor, Tahun 2007 – Tahun 2008.
-Dewan Penasehat Forum Mahasiswa Pasca Sarjana Asal Sulawesi – Selatan, Tahun 2008 – Sekarang.
-Dewan Penasehat Forum Mahasiswa Pasca Sarjana Institut Pertanian Bogor, Tahun 2008 – Tahun 2009.
I.Nara Sumber
Nara Sumber Pada :
-Majalah Trobos.
-Majalah Poultry.
-Seminar dan Pelatihan di Bidang Perunggasan.





(Dr.Syahrir Akil, S.Pt)

Friday, June 25, 2010

Measuring Hatching Egg Shell Quality

Measuring Hatching Egg Shell Quality
Clearly hatchability is important to both small flock and commercial poultry breeder flock owners. Maintaining hatching egg shell quality is important because of its connection with hatchability. The major factors that influence egg shell quality are genetics, diet, climate, housing and age of the hens. While the average poultry operation has limited control over most of these factors, the crucial significance of hatchability makes it is important to recognize and control egg shell quality where possible.
Obviously, eggs with thin shells are more likely to break, producing 'leakers.' While leakers are not usually set in the incubator, thin shelled eggs crack easily in the hen house, during collection and transportation, resulting in poor hatches due to contamination. In addition to the increased likelihood of shell breakage, thin shelled eggs that do not suffer breakage allow for higher water vapor loss during the entire incubation process resulting in dehydration and higher embryonic mortality. Those chicks that do hatch from thin shelled eggs have decreased livability during the first few days of life and poor overall performance because they get off to a slow start.
Egg shell color has also been questioned in regards to its affects on hatchability. While the scientific literature contains conflicting data regarding the relationship between egg color and hatchability, poultry producers have long held the belief that in typical brown egg laying breeds, light colored eggs will not hatch as well as those that are darker in color. Indeed, it is interesting to note that in certain songbird species (flycatchers) experimental evidence suggests that healthier more wellfed females lay more intensely colored eggs (Moreno et al., 2006). Thus, there is some evidence to substantiate the assumption that darker eggs hatch better than lighter colored eggs. Eggshell color may also be associated with egg shell quality. Therefore, producers have been trained to eliminate light colored eggs from consideration as hatching eggs due to their poorer hatching expectations.
Measuring shell quality: Determining shell quality involves estimating shell thickness. Although there are many methods for estimating shell thickness, egg specific gravity is the easiest and most widely utilized. There are two methods to obtain egg specific gravity measurements: the Archimedes method and the salt solution method.
The Archimedes method involves weighing eggs individually and then weighing the egg in water. Then the formula [dry egg weight/ (dry egg weight-wet egg weight)] is used to obtain the specific gravity. However, because eggs must be individually weighed, this method is seldom used. The salt bath method utilizes tubs of water each of which contains a greater concentration of salt than the previous tub (typical concentrations are 1.070, 1.075, 1.080, 1.085 and 1.090). The specific gravity of the solution in which the egg floats, is the specific gravity of the egg. Eggs are placed initially in the tub with the lowest salt solution concentration. The specific gravity estimate is recorded for those eggs that float. Those eggs that do not float are removed and placed into the next higher solution and so forth until all the eggs float. This method is popular because it allows for rapid measurement of large numbers of eggs, with minimal affect on the eggs or their hatchability. The best time to measure specific gravity is in the hatchery after the eggs have had a chance a constant temperature and to reach the same temperature as the salt solutions.
Measuring shell color: The shells of broiler breeder eggs can vary from white to almost chocolate in color. The cause of this variation in egg color is not known, but eggshell color measurements have been made using techniques ranging from visual estimation to sophisticated electronic measurements. However, digital colorimeters are generally best because they tend to remove the subjectivity from these measurements.
Experimental Procedures
Egg Selection and Handling: A total of 1,944 eggs were collected from five different broiler breeder flocks that were between 33 and 45 weeks of age. Eggs were labeled so that each egg individually could be followed through the testing, incubation and hatching process. For this study, cracked eggs, toe checked eggs and any misshapen, too small or large eggs, or dirty eggs were eliminated. Only eggs that would be acceptable hatching eggs by the commercial integrator were used. Eggs were hatched at the commercial hatchery using industry standards and after hatch, a hatch residue breakout was performed to determine fertility and time of embryonic mortality.
Specific gravity: Salt solutions were maintained in the egg storage room at a local commercial hatchery and measured after they had time to adjust to the temperature of the room. The salt solutions were check regularly for accuracy with a hydrometer and concentrations ranged from a low of 1.065 to a high of 1.090 in increments of 0.005.
Shell color: Eggshell color was determined for each egg using a colorimeter that gave a numeric measurement of shell color. This procedure removed human error from shell color determinations. Pure white eggs would have returned a reading of 100, while darker eggs had lower numbers. The eggs that were measured had a color range from upper 60's (dark) to the lower 90's (light colored).
Experimental Results
Specific Gravity and Hatch: Hatchability results are shown in Figure 2. These results indicate that eggs with a specific gravity of 1.070 hatch as well as those with higher specific gravities and that hatch is not negatively affected until specific gravity is 1.065 or lower. These results are different than those published by McDaniel et al., 1981 and Bennett, 1992, who report that eggs with specific gravities less than 1.080 had poor hatch and increased embryo mortality. This difference in results may be the result of genetic progress made during the last 15 years, or in experimental methodology.
Shell Color and Hatch: Figure 1 shows the relationship of how shell color relates to hatchability. These results show that the hatch of extremely light colored eggs is lower than the darker eggs. Since shell pigments are applied to the shell just prior to the egg being layed light egg color may be a sign of prematurely layed eggs caused by some type of environmental stress.
Summary
1. A measurement of specific gravity can be effectively used to rapidly evaluate the shell quality in broiler breeders.
2. Eggs with specific gravity values higher than 1.070 will hatch well while those lower will result in poor hatches and indicate poor shell quality.
3. Lighter colored eggs (color scores above 87) hatched at a lower rate than did darker eggs. However, the light colored eggs would be considered those which are 'extremely light' and not just a lighter shade.
References
Bennett, C.D. 1992. The influence of shell thickness on hatchability in commercial broiler breeder flocks. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 1:61-65.
McDaniel, G.R., J. Brake and M.K. Eckman. 1981. Factors affecting broiler breeder performance. 5. The interrelationship of some reproductive traits. Poultry Science 60:1792-1797.
Moreno, J., E. Lobato, J. Morales, S. Merino, G. Tomas, J. Martinez-de la Puente, J. J. Sanz, R. Mateo and J. J. Soler. 2006. Experimental evidence that egg color indicates female condition at laying in a songbird. Behavioral Ecology 17:651-655.

Balancing the eggs

Balancing The Egg
The development of the embryo is determined by the temperature inside the shell, the embryo temperature. This temperature will dictate the development, but with that also the hatchability and the quality of the day-old chick.
It is often assumed that this temperature is fully dependent on the temperature of the air. Although air temperature has a large influence on it, it is not the only factor and in some situations not even the most important factor to consider.
We want to keep the embryo temperature at a level of 100.0 to 100.5°F. This temperature inside the egg is the result of a balance between the heat production of the embryo on one side and the heat loss of the egg towards it's environment on the other side.
One side of the balance: heat production
During development, the embryo produces metabolic heat. This heat production depends on the moment of incubation. At start of incubation, the heat production hardly exists. The first signs of heat production can be observed around day 4. From day 8-9 onwards the heat production becomes so high that the embryo temperature will rise if we don't react on it. At day 18, the heat production is at its highest level. Once the embryo's starts to pip, the heat production rises again, due to the increased activity.
Not every breed produces the same amount of heat at a given moment in incubation. Broilers produce more heat then layer type birds, high-yielding breeds produce more heat then classical breeds, male lines do normally produce more heat then female lines and within one line males produce more heat then females.
Although there are differences in breeds, the effect of a higher embryo temperature is not equal for all breeds and lines. For instance layer breeds produce less heat then broiler breeds and therefore the embryo temperature will increase less, but the effect of 1 degree increase in layer breeds is much more dramatic then for broiler breeds.
The other side: heat loss
To keep the embryo temperature at the desired level of 100.0-100.5°F, we have to remove enough heat from the shell to compensate for the heat production. There are in principal four factors that influence the heat loss.
• Air temperature
A difference in temperature between shell and air will force the heat to flow either towards the shell (when air is warmer then shell) or from the shell (when shell is warmer then air). The bigger the difference in temperature is, the more heat will be transferred.
• Humidity
Humidity influences heat loss in two different ways.
Dry air can contain very little heat in itself. It is actually the water molecules in the air that carry the heat. We call this heat capacity: when more water molecules are present in the air (high humidity), more energy is stored per unit of air. This means that at a given temperature difference, humid air will remove more heat from the egg. As we normally incubate in a narrow range of humidity, this is not a major factor of importance. However, if we incubate at high altitude (low pressure), there are less water molecules in the air, even at the same relative humidity as at low altitude, and the heat loss of eggs will be more difficult.
Eggs evaporate water at a constant rate, to a total of 12 to 14% of their initial weight. This evaporation of water costs energy, and moisture loss will therefore reduce egg temperature. When relative humidity is high, less water is evaporated and less heat will be lost.
These two mechanisms work in opposite directions: A high relative humidity will increase heat loss through increasing heat capacity but at the same time decrease heat loss through decreasing evaporation.
• Air velocity
A major factor in heat loss is air velocity. At the same temperature difference, objects will loose more heat if air velocity is high. We know that and use that very effectively in broilers, when we apply tunnel ventilation. It is also known in humans, where we call it the "wind chill factor". For eggs this is exactly the same. Eggs in incubators that experience a high air velocity will loose more heat and therefore be colder then eggs at low air velocity. The difference can be as high as 2-3°F in embryo temperature at the end of incubation. This implicates that if air velocity differs between different spots in machines, the embryo temperature will vary, no matter how uniform the air temperature is. As racks and trolleys of eggs are blocking air velocity in a machine and air takes the way of the least resistance, it is easy to imagine that huge air velocity differences can sometimes be observed in commercial machines.
• Water spray
When the air in the machine is too dry, the machine will add water to compensate. As water needs energy to evaporate, this will cool the eggs that are close to this water spray. Although water evaporation has a cooling effect by itself and sometimes can be used to cool eggs, spraying huge amounts of water will decrease uniformity in embryo temperature, as usually the water is sprayed locally, and at places where there is already a high air velocity.
Practical implications
In the last decade, there has been done a lot of research in this area. By now we know that embryo temperature in commercial setters and hatchers is often quite variable, mainly due to differences in air velocity. This raises two questions:
1. Is it of practical importance, in other words, does it affect the embryo or the chick.
2. If it is important, can we do anything about it.
To answer the first question, yes, it is a very relevant factor affecting both hatch and chick performance. Practical experience shows that controlling embryo temperatures between acceptable ranges can result in a better hatchability and above all a better chick quality. Especially the influence on yolk uptake and closure of the navels is high, resulting in differences in first week mortality due to navel/yolk sac infections and e-coli infections. Research has shown that differences in embryo temperature away from the optimum, result in a significant difference in hatchability, but also in growth and feed conversion of broilers at 6 weeks of age. Also the development of the total embryo as well as specific organs like the heart muscle are influenced, resulting in for instance a difference in ascites susceptibility.
The second question is more difficult to answer. With a single stage machine, we can at least adjust the machine temperature to match the heat production of the embryo. Although this gives a explicit and nowadays well recognised benefit over multi-stage machines and will result in a better chick quality, not all single stage machines are equal.
Because the major important factor for embryo temperature is air velocity and to a lesser extent the place and function of the humidifier, a substantial part of the problem is in the design of incubators and hatchers, which is challenging incubator manufacturers. Only by creating an equal air velocity over all egg and avoiding local evaporation of water, a uniform embryo temperature can be achieved. Without control on these points, the laws of physics simply don't allow a uniform embryo temperature and with it a uniform and optimal development of the embryos.
Although a lot can be done to improve the uniformity and control of embryo temperature in existing machines, the fundamental issue has to be solved in the designing stage of new machines. A simple check on the uniformity in embryo temperature of 18 day incubated eggs at different spots in the machine will show how well the design of a machine handles the factors that influence heat loss of the eggs.
Incubators that provide a uniform embryo temperature will allow us to create a more optimal environment for all the developing embryos, resulting in a better hatchability, a better chick quality and a better bird performance.
PUBLICATION DATE: 23/02/2009
RATING
COMPANY: HatchTech Incubation Technology
AUTHOR: Dr. Ron Meijerhof - HatchTech Incubation Technology (The Netherlands)

Monday, June 14, 2010

Hatching Egg Sanitation

Hatching Egg Sanitation
A common management tool in the handling of hatching eggs is treatment of the eggs with a fumigant or other type of disinfectant to reduce the number of microorganisms on the shell surface. In addition, sanitation of the hatchery building, hatchery equipment, egg transportation equipment, etc., is critical to good hatchability and high quality hatchlings.
Penetration of the hatching egg shell by microorganisms results in embryonic mortality, weak chicks, high chick mortality, and poor chick growth. The most effective sanitation system involves treating the eggs as soon as they are collected from the nest and before microorganisms penetrate the shell. Several recent research studies have examined the effectiveness, safety and ease of use of common disinfectants currently available for use in hatcheries and on eggs.
User- And Environmental- Friendliness
A Canadian study (1, References) examined 23 sanitizers/disinfectants for positive and negative characteristics in respect to their use in the hatchery. Each sanitizer was rated for user- and environmental-friendliness based on general characteristics, environmental impact and necessary safety precautions, health concerns, reactiveness, and potential fire hazard.
Ratings on environmental impact and safety were based on disposal methods, hazardous decomposition products, handling precautions, and ease of preparation for use. Ratings relative to health concerns were based on danger from direct contact (inhalation, eye, skin and ingestion), carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, and toxic effects on reproduction. Each product was also rated for reactivity (compatibility with other substances), stability over time, corrosiveness and fire hazard (flash point).
The types of products tested included ozone, quaternary ammonium, iodine complexes, phenols, halogens, aldehydes, salts, alcohols, acids, and various combinations. The following products 3 were tested: formaldehyde, Glutacide, Quat 800, Germex, Quam, Super Quam, Tryad, Egg Wash, Coverage 256, Basic G & H, Iocide-14, Iodophor, Lysovet, 1-Stroke, Tektrol, D.O.C., hypochlorite or bleach, Chlorwash, Bioguard, H Peroxide, Virkon, Sanimist, and ozone.
The products that were rated user- and environment-friendly were Bioguard, Germex, Iocide-14, Lysovet, Super Quam, Chlorwash, Quam, Quat 800, 1-Stroke, and Coverage 256. Compounds such as bleach, peroxide and ozone were considered to be marginal in their user- and environmental-friendliness.
Most of the compounds tested should be used with protective clothing, and precautions should be taken against inhalation and eye and skin contact. Products which were deemed to have potential as severe hazards to eyes, skin, and respiratory system were bleach, formaldehyde, ozone and Tektrol.
Effectiveness Against Microorganisms
The 23 products listed above were also tested for their effectiveness against a variety of microorganisms on the egg shell (2, References).
Results:
•All of the sanitizers (except Basic G & H, Sanimist, and ozone) showed a general ability to reduce microorganism on egg shells to a negligible number.
•The active ingredient in Sanimist, chlorine dioxide, reacts with the protein of the egg shell cuticle which neutralizes it before it can effectively attack the microorganism.
•Although a freshly mixed solution of Virkon was effective, storing for 7 days caused it to be ineffective.
•Phenol-based sanitizers such as Tektrol, D.O.C. and 1-Stroke, were less effective than Lysovet, another phenol compound which also contains EDTA (surfactant and wetting agent).
Hatcheries should monitor the effectiveness of sanitizers/disinfectants by the use of air, swab, fluff or other microbiological sampling techniques.
Effect on the Embryo
Some of the 23 products tested caused embryo mortality and loss of hatchability (3, References). Virkon, Coverage 256, and Egg Wash, all of which contain EDTA, caused reductions in hatchability of 11 to 26%. They also caused below normal moisture loss during incubation ranging from 16 to 19% less than the formaldehyde-treated standard. Peroxide caused an increased loss of moisture from the eggs during incubation but did not affect hatchability.
Use of Ultraviolet Light And Air Filtering
A recent study (4, References) examined the potential of ultraviolet (UV) light as a user-friendly, safe method of sanitizing hatching eggs and as a means to "scrub" circulating air in the incubator. Pre-incubation treatment of eggs with UV light (254 nm) for 1, 3, or 5 minutes was much less effective in the control of bacteria on the shell than dipping eggs in 1% formalin for 1, 5, or 10 minutes. UV light-treated eggs had slightly less moisture loss during incubation, but hatchability was not affected.
Eggs treated with formalin before setting and then incubated in UV light with an air filtering system had lower bacterial counts and higher hatchability than those without the light (77.4 vs 71.4%). Late embryonic mortality was reduced nearly 30%. Pre-incubation egg treatment with sanitizers having a residual effect would also be helpful in preventing recontamination during incubation.
Timing of Egg Disinfection
In the case of hatching egg contamination, a good defense is truly the best offense. That is, a good sanitation program which prevents egg contamination is far superior to disinfection after the eggs are contaminated. At its best, disinfection is only partially successful.
The type of organisms involved and the immediacy of treatment will likely have a significant influence on the success of the disinfection. This has been demonstrated in studies by Cox and Bailey (5, 6, References) in which the shells of hatching eggs were inoculated with a strain of salmonella. The eggs were then treated with one of several disinfectants at 1 minute, 5 minutes, 4 hours or 24 hours after inoculation. On the average, there was a 77% reduction of the incidence of contaminated eggs when treatment was within 1 minute, 64% reduction for treatment within 5 minutes, 45% reduction for treatment within 4 hours, and less than 10% reduction for treatment within 24 hours. Thus, the time lapsed from contamination to treatment with a disinfectant is crucial to the success of the disinfection.
Immersion of the egg in the disinfectant was more effective than a spray, which in turn was more effective than foam application. Glutaraldehyde, quaternary ammonium and a viricide were ineffective. Polyhexamethylenebiguanide hydrochloride (PHMB), hydrogen peroxide (1%), and phenol (.2%) were most effective resulting in 95, 94, and 80% reductions, respectively, in contaminated eggs with 1 minute post-inoculation treatment and 95, 44, and 69% reductions with the 5 minute treatment.
It is obvious that the results of disinfection are greatly influenced by the timing of treatment and the type of disinfectant. The type of organism involved also will likely have a major effect on the results. Furthermore, the beneficial effect of disinfection on hatchability may be disappointing. In a recent study with chicken eggs (7, References), the effects of disinfection of nest-clean or dirty eggs ranged from no effect on hatchability to an increase of 2 percentage points for sanitized dirty eggs.
Although egg disinfection is often helpful in reducing contamination on hatching eggs, it is not a panacea and every effort should be made to produce a clean egg which does not need to be disinfected.
References
1.Scott, T.A., and C. Swetnam, 1993. Screening sanitizing agents and methods of application for hatching eggs. I. Environmental and user friendliness. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 2:1-6.
2.Scott, T.A., and C. Swetnam, 1993. Screening sanitizing agents and methods of application for hatching eggs. II. Effectiveness against microorganisms on the egg shell. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 2:7-11.
3.Scott, T.A., C. Swetnam, and R. Kinsman, 1993. Screening sanitizing agents and methods of application for hatching eggs. III. Effect of concentration and exposure time on embryo viability. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 2:12-18.
4.Scott, T.A., 1993. The effect of UV-light and air filtering system on embryo viability and microorganism load on the egg shell. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 2:19-25.
5.Cox, N.A., and J.S. Bailey, 1991. Efficacy of various chemical treatments over time to eliminate Salmonella on hatching eggs. Poultry Science 70 (Supp. 1):31.
6.Cox, N.A., and J.S. Bailey, 1991. Effect of chemical treatments to eliminate Salmonella on hatching eggs. Poultry Science 70 (Supp. 1):154.
7.Buhr, R.J., J.M. Mauldin, J.S. Bailey, and N.A. Cox, 1993. Hatchability of sanitized nest clean and dirty broiler hatching eggs. Poultry Science 72 (Supp. 1):157.
PUBLICATION DATE: 15/07/2009
RATING
AUTHOR: Henry R. Wilson, professor, Dairy and Poultry Sciences Department, Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida

Sunday, June 6, 2010

Strategi Mengantisipasi Heat Stress Pada Broiler

Strategi Mengantisipasi Heat Stress Pada Broiler
Heats stress diartikan sebagai respon fisiologis, biokimia dan tingkah laku terhadap faktor fisik, kimia dan biologis lingkungan. Ayam akan mengalami stress jika mengalami perubahan lingkungan yang ekstrim, seperti peningkatan temperatur lingkungan atau pada saat toleransi terhadap lingkungan menjadi rendah. Stress bisa menjadi status tetap atau merupakan tantangan proses adaptasi ternak. Stress merupakan ungkapan umum tentang penyesuaian fisiologis dan perilaku seperti perubahan denyut jantung, respirasi, temperatur dan tekanan darah yang terjadi jika ternak mengalami kondisi yang merupakan stressor baginya.
Stress yang terjadi pada unggas di daerah tropis salah satunya disebabkan oleh tingginya temperatur lingkungan dan berpengaruh negatif pada produksi unggas,. Kerugian yang cukup besar karena dapat menurunkan produktivitas akan tetapi menaikkan mortalitas. Kejadian Heat Stress pada broiler biasanya dimulai pada umur 3 minggu. Pada saat temperatur lingkungan tinggi broiler sangat sulit mengatur temperatur tubuhnya.
Mekanisme Faali Terhadap Heat Stress
Hormon tiroksin dari kelenjar thyroid merupakan hormone-hormon utama dalam metabolism dan mekanisme panas karena perannya dalam merangsang metabolisme tingkat sel di seluruh tubuh . Peningkatan konsentrasi hormon pertumbuhan(T3 dan T4) dalam darah akan meningkatkan pula metabolism didalam sel-sel tubuh dan merangsang penggunaan oksigen serta meningkatkan produksi panas. Hal ini disebabkan karena peningkatan penggunaan karbohidrat, peningkatan katabolisme protein yang ditandai dengan eksresi nitrogen dan peningkatan oksida ternak yang berlebih.
Apabila unggas berada pada lingkungan bersuhu tinggi, maka ternak akan mengalami heat stress karena mendapatkan panas dari luar dan tidak dapat meyalurkan panas tubuh yang berlebih karena lingkungan luar sangat panas. Heat Stress menyebabkan penghambatan keluarnya Tiroksin Releasing Hormone (TRH) dari hipotalamus, sehingga terhambat pula keluarnya Tiroksin Stimulating Hormon (TSH) dari anterior pituitary dan menyebabkan sekresi T3 dan T4, sehingga proses metabolism berjalan dengan taraf yang mencukupi.
Pada saat broiler mengalami stress panas dalam arti bahwa kehilangan panas diatas temperatur kritis tingkat pernafasan meningkat. Broiler yang kepanasan akan mengalami hyperthremia yang akan menyebabkan kasus panting (Terengah-engah). Intensitas respirasi akan meningkat hingga lebih dari 20 kali lipat. Hal ini akan mempengaruhi keseimbangan asam basa dalam darah. Alasannya sederhana, pada saat megap-megap, broiler akan banyak kehilangan CO2 dan derajat keasaman darah akan menjadi lebih basa. Kondisi ini akan menghambat proses penangkapan oksiden oleh sel darah merah ayam. Kedua, stress kepanasan akan mengganggu proses konversi vitamin D3 menjadi bentuk atktifnya. Padahal bentuk aktif dari vitamin D3 sangat diperlukan dalam proses regulasi kalsium. Ketiga, sintesa asam askorbat atau vitamin C yang ikut membantu dalam proses pembentukan tropocollagen, menurun.
Selama sengatan panas dan stress kepanasan, terjadi produksi radikal bebas yang berlebih. Radikal bebas ini akan merusak membran sel. Organ yang sangat penting dalam proses pembentukan daging, seperti hati ,akan mengalami gangguan dalam integritas membran selnya sehingga terjadi gangguan dalam pembentukan ATP dan metabolisme sel. Disfungsi hati akan menyebabkan pecahnya pembuluh darah pada hati (Perdarahan pada hati).
Stress karena suhu yang panas dapat menyebabkan kondisi imunosupresi. Hal ini akan meningkatkan sensitifitas ayam broiler terhadap infeksi kuman lapangan. Di lain pihak musim kemarau atau pancaroba memungkinkan peningkatan jumlah partikel debu di lapangan, padahal debu dapat digunakan sebagai media penyebaran kuman, misalnya E. coli. Setiap gram debu mengandung lebih dari 105 (pangkat lima) partikel E.coli. Sehingga peluang kasus penyakit infeksi pernafasan akan menjadi semakin tinggi. Kuman E.coli seringkali bertindak sebagai penyebab infeksi sekunder kasus pernafasan kompleks. E. coli bersama dengan debu dengan mudah masuk ke dalam tubuh melalui paruh ayam yang terbuka saat panting karena heat stress.
Strategi Manajemen Mengatasi Heat Stress
Strategi manajemen nutrisi untuk mengatasi stress panas termasuk mengatur hal-hal tersebut dibawah ini :
1.Air minum
2.Kandungaan energi dan protein dalam pakan.
3.Kandungan vitamin dalam pakan dan air.
4. Perubahan dalam praktek pemberian pakan.
5. Waktu pemberian pakan
6. Feed additive
Air Minum
Lebih dari 70 % produksi panas selama heat stress berlangsung dikeluarkan melalui panting, dengan demikian ketersediaan air yang dingin selama musim panas akan sangat membantu. Penurunan temperatur air dan penambahan garam mampu meningkatkan konsumsi air minum untuk proses pengeluaran panas tubuh.
Energi Pakan
Faktor pembatas yang sangat penting mempengaruhi performans broiler pada temperatur yang tinggi adalah konsumsi energi dalam pakan. Ketika temperatur lingkungan meningkat diatas 21ÂșC, kebutuhan energi untuk maintenance menurun 30 kcal/hari. Walaupun kebutuhan energi maintenance rendah pada temperatur tinggi, banyak energi yang terbuang untuk menghilangkan panas. Formula pakan dengan tingkat kepadatan nutrient (density) tinggi agar dapat memenuhi kebutuhan harian untuk pertumbuhan pada saat terjadi penurunan konsumsi pakan.
Protein dan Asam Amino
Kebutuhan protein dan asam amino tergantung temperatur lingkungan, sekalipun kebutuhan protein terpenuhi, heat stress akan mempengaruhi performans ayam. Konsumsi protein diatas kebutuhan atau program pemberian pakan dengan asam amino tidak seimbang meningkatkan katabolisme dan mengakibatkan produksi panas ditandai dengan meningkatnya heat stress pada ayam terus menerus pada temperatur lingkungan yang tinggi. Pengurangan protein pakan dengan suplementasi yang cocok dari asam amino sintetis juga merupakan salah satu jalan mengurangi produksi panas. Dengan demikian disarankan mengurangi kandungan protein kasar dari pakan dan melakukan suplemen dengan asam amino sintetik untuk memenuhi kebutuhan pertumbuhan. Suplementasi Metionin hydroxyl analog lebih baik daripada DL-Metionin, dan sangat menguntungkan pada ayam yang mengalami stress panas karena dapat diserap secara langsung melalui difusi pasif, yang mana tidak memerlukan energy.
Vitamin-Vitamin
Penambahan vitamin C, vitamin A, vitamin E dan D3 diperbolehkan untuk memperbaiki performans ayam pada temperatur tinggi. Temperatur tinggi juga mempengaruhi metabolisme secara keseluruhan dan kerusakan oksidatif membrane sel sehingga membutuhkan nutrisi seperti vitamin C(sebagai antioksidan), untuk memperbaiki kondisi tubuh.
Dosis vitamin C sebesar 200 ppm/kg pakan mampu menghasilkan performans ayam yang lebih baik selama heat stress. Biotin juga dapat ditambahkan untuk mengurangi gangguan metabolik seperti fatty liver dan kidney sindrom selama musim panas. Vitamin E dengan dosis 250 mg/kg pakan pada kondisi heat stress dapat juga memberi keuntungan dalam mengurangi kerusakan oksidatif.
Elektrolit dan Buffer
Panting mengakibatkan peningkatan kehilangan CO2 secara berlebih sehingga pernafasan menjadi alkalosis. Perubahan keseimbangan elektrolit dapat mengurangi laju pertumbuhan broiler. Untuk melindungi hal ini diperlukan pemberian larutan elektrolit (anion dan kation) dalam formula pakan. Suplementasi sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) 0.5 % atau 0.3% sampai 1.0 % ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) dapat mengurangi dampak negative alkalosis yang disebabkan oleh heat stress.
Perubahan dalam praktek pemberian pakan
Performans ayam menurun pada kondisi temperatur sangat panas , disebabkan oleh konsumsi pakan menurun. Agar supaya konsumsi pakan dapat meningkat dapat dilakukan hal-hal seperti : peningkatan frekwensi pemberian pakan, pemberian pakan dalam bentuk pellet, penambahan lemak atau molasses untuk meningkatkan palatabilitas.
Waktu Pemberian Pakan
Pembentukan panas pada metabolism pakan terjadi 4 – 6 jam setelah pemberian pakan. Kematian dapat ditekan dengan cara pemberian pakan pada malam hari dan pembatasan pakan kira-kira 4-6 jam sebelum terjadi heat stress.
Suplementasi Probiotik
Diketahui bahwa heat stress berpengaruh terhadap pencernaan dan absorbsi nutrisi. Suplementasi lactobacillus dan streptococcus memberikan keuntungan pada ayam pada saat kondisi heat stress.
Bahan – Bahan Chemotherapeutic
Sejumlah senyawa mampu membantu dalam mengurangi stress yang berhubungan dengan hypothermia. Aureomycin mampu mengurangi pertumbuhan yang menurun karena stress, resinpine diketahui sebagai suatu alkaloid yang mampu melindungi ayam dari kehilangan CO2 akibat heat stress demikian pula thereby mampu mempertahankan keseimbangan asam-basa dalam darah selama heat stress terjadi.
Kesimpulan
Temperatur tinggi sebagai stressor pada broiler mampu menyebabkan gangguan produksi sehingga terjadi penurunan performans. Meminimalisasi pengaruh negatif dari panas melalui modifikasi pakan adalah hal yang ideal dan biaya yang lebih murah. Penggunaan vitamin-vitamin tertentu yang dapat menekan kematian ayam pada saat terjadi heat stress sangat dianjurkan.

About Lux and Light

About Lux and Light
By Ron Meijerhof, Senior Technical Specialist, Hybro B.V. - Light is extremely important for chickens. Not only do they need light to see and find food, water, nests etc, but also their reproductive system is triggered by light. To understand how it works, we have to look at both light and birds.
What is light?
Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation, like radiowaves, rontgen waves etc. Radiation with wave lengths between approximately 300 and 800 nm (1 nm is a millionth part of a millimeter) can be seen by the human eye as light. The wave length determines the colour of light. 300 nm is violet, then comes blue, green, yellow, orange and the longest wave length of 800 nm is red light. If the wavelength is just below 300 nm, we talk about ultra-violet, where a wavelength just above 800 is called infra-red. Although we can’t see ultra-violet and infrared, we know they exist. Ultra-violet light colours our skin and infra-red can be felt as heat and can be made visible with an infra-red camera.
We see coloured objects because they reflect a certain wave length. A red object absorbs all wavelengths except red. It reflects the red colour which is seen by the eye, and that is why we see the object as red. White light is a mixture of all colours, which means that a white surface reflects all colours. Black objects reflect no colour. That is why black objects get warm more easily, as they absorb all incoming light.
The temperature of light
We normally consider light with a lot or red/orange colour in it as warm (candle light), while bright white light with a lot of blue/green colour seems cold and hard.
The colour of lamps is often given as a temperature in degrees Kelvin (oK). Kelvin has the same range and magnitude as Celsius, but doesn’t start with 0 at the temperature of melting ice, but at the absolute zero, which is -273oC. A high colour temperature stands for very short wave lengths (blue/green) and low temperatures represent long wave lengths (red/orange). This is a bit confusing, as a high colour temperature (blue/green) for us feels as a cold colour, where a warm colour as orange or red is measured as a low temperature.
This has to do with the way these temperatures are determined. A plate of steel is warmed up until it starts giving off light. At approximately 2000-3000 oK the steel is red hot, and gives off red light. When we warm it further, it passes through all the colours until it becomes white at about 6000oK. When we heat it up further, the steel even becomes green and eventually blue/violet. Normal daylight has a temperature of about 6500oK.
The intensity of light
The intensity of light is measured in lux, which is the amount of electromagnetic radiation (lumen) received per surface area. For a normal lux meter it doesn’t matter if the electromagnetic radiation is in the wavelength of blue colour or red colour, it just measures the radiation.
Birds and humans
Birds and humans do make a difference between wavelengths. They can see especially well in bright, white light, which contains a lot of blue and green, so short wave lengths. Also humans experience bright white light as very intense. However, the reproductive system of chickens is not so much influenced by the light that they see, but by the light received in the brain. The brain of a chicken contains light-sensitive cells, and they are stimulated by the light that goes through the skull.
But not all light goes through the skull evenly. Especially long wavelengths can penetrate into the brain. Compare it with music, where the bass (long wave lengths) can be heard easily outside a house or car. We can also see it if we have a torch shining on our hand, where the red waves will go through the skin and can be seen on the other side, colouring it red. This means that chickens use bright light (short wave length, high amount of blue/green wave length) to see, but they need red light (long wave length) for stimulation of the reproductive system.
So if we want to stimulate eating behaviour (broilers) but also activity of breeders to find the nest and avoid floor eggs, we have to give them bright cold white light, with a high amount of blue/green. If we want to stimulate the reproductive system, we have to give them warm light, with a high amount of red/orange. If we use light in chicken houses, we must be aware of this.
•If we simply measure the amount of lux, we might find that the house is light enough. But if that light is very bright and there is only a small amount of red colour in it, changes are that the birds don’t get stimulated enough.
•Lamps with a lot of red wavelength in it do not seem very bright for us, where the actual lux reading can be surprisingly high. White bright light will seem more intense, where the actual amount of lux can be low.
•As birds respond to the red wavelengths, white bright light will not be very effective for production. If we need to give enough red light with this light source, the total light intensity has to go up very high. This bears the risk that the birds are stimulated in their behaviour, resulting in nervousness, stress and pecking. Giving only red light will not work so well, as it will for instance increase the risk on floor eggs.
•In rearing, often light bulbs (warm, yellow/orange light) are used because the can be dimmed very well. When these birds are transferred to a black-out production house with high frequent bright white TL light, the total light can go up, but the amount of red light might not increase that much or even decrease. And as birds get stimulated by an increase in red light, their production might be delayed.
•Broilers need to be stimulated to find food and water and move around, so they can benefit from a high amount of green/blue colour in the lamps. Breeders in reproduction will be stimulated by a high amount of red/orange colour in the lamps, but they need enough white light to avoid floor eggs.
To avoid problems, we must:
•Not only look at lux, but also at the colour of the light
•Ensure that broiler breeders step up especially in the red light fraction coming into production.
•Make sure birds get enough white light to stimulate their behaviour.
•Make sure broiler breeders in production get enough warm, red/orange light to stimulate their reproduction.
Source :http://www.thepoultrysite.com/articles/715/about-lux-and-light

Sunday, March 21, 2010

Pertahankan Kualitas DOC dari Hatchery Ke Farm

Pertahankan Kualitas DOC dari Hatchery Ke Farm
Doc kualitas yang baik bahkan yang exelent kalau tidak didukung dengan infrastruktur
yang tersedia kualitasnya dapat menurun, sehingga performance sampai akhir pemeliharaan bisa berkurang. Untuk itu ada dua hal yang penting dalam hal ini :
1. Kondisi ruang penyimpanan DOC
2. Kondisi mobil pengangkut DOC.
- Kondisi ruang penyimpanan DOC, harus memiliki kriteria sebagai berikut : temperatur berkisar antara 24 drajat celcius, kelembaban relatif 50%, chicks air exchange 50 cfm per 1000 doc.
-Kondisi mobil pengangkut, harus memiliki kriteria sebagai berikut : temperatur berkisar antara 24 drajat celcius, chicks air exchange 50 cfm per 1000 doc.

Saturday, February 6, 2010

Effect of pre-warming profile on hatchability and chick quality
Presented on IPE Atlanta, January 2009, by Inge Reijrink1
I.A.M. Reijrink1*, D. Berghmans2, R. Meijerhof1, B. Kemp2 and H. van den Brand2
1HatchTech Incubation Technology B.V., PO Box 256, 3900 AG Veenendaal, The Netherlands;
2 Adaptation Physiology Group, Wageningen Institute of Animal Sciences, Wageningen university, PO Box 338, 6700 AH
Wageningen, The Netherlands
Pre-warming of hatching eggs prior to incubation is to prevent condensation and to reduce variation in egg temperatures. The pre-warming profile might affect embryo viability, as it might affect cell death especially when cell viability is reduced after prolonged storage. The aim of this research was to investigate the effect of storage time and pre-warming profile on hatchability and chick quality. Eggs from a Ross broiler breeder flock with an age of 41 to 50 weeks were used. The experiment was a 2*3 factorial design: 2 storage times (4 and 14 d), and 3 pre-warming profiles (in 30 minutes, 4 h, or 24 h from 17°C to 37.8°C). All eggs were stored at 17°C. Eggs pre-warmed in 30 min were warmed in a water bath with water of 37.8°C. The other eggs were pre-warmed during 4 and 24 h in air. During incubation egg shell temperature was maintained at 37.8°C in all treatment groups. Infertility and embryonic mortality was determined macroscopically. Chick quality was evaluated 12 h after hatch by measuring chick length and yolk free body mass. No interaction was found between storage time and pre-warming profile for hatchability and chick quality. Although no significant interaction was found, there was a numerical difference in first week embryonic mortality between 24 h of pre-warming and 30 min and 4 h of pre-warming in eggs stored for 14 d (3.4%, 11.1%, and 9.4%, respectively, P=0.34).
Storage time and pre-warming profile did not affect hatchability. Pre-warming profile did not affect chick quality. Fourteen days storage resulted in 0.1 cm shorter chick length (P=0.003) and 0.4 g lower yolk free body mass (P=0.006) compared with 4 d storage. In this experiment no effect of pre-warming profile on hatchability or chick quality was found.

Key words: storage time, pre-warming profile, hatchability, chick quality

© Copyright 2009 HatchTech B.V., The Netherlands. HatchTech B.V. reserves the right to alter or modify the article without prior notice. No part of this article may be copied or reproduced without the written permission of HatchTech B.V.

Friday, February 5, 2010

Big eggs give big chicks, don’t they…
Dr. Ron Meijerhof, HatchTech Incubation Technology
Introduction
In the field we often see that the chick quality coming from old breeder flocks is not as good as we would like it to see. Although the chicks are big, we see problems with viability of the chicks, yolk sac absorption, unhealed navels etc. Together with that, we can also see a decreased hatch of fertiles,and then especially by an increase in late deads.
If we think about it, it’s a bit strange why bigger eggs from older flocks should give more problems.Genetically the embryos are identical to the embryos the same flock produced 20 weeks ago. Weshould expect the embryos to develop more or less in the same way, as they probably will not notice that they are in a bigger egg until the end of incubation, when they fill up the entire egg. An issue could
be the decreasing shell quality of older flocks, but even flocks with good shell quality tend to give more problems with chick quality when the breeders get older.
Influence of temperature
One of the problems we are facing with bigger eggs is the actual temperature of the egg duringincubation.The optimum development for an embryo takes place at a very specific temperature inside the egg.This temperature (measured on the egg shell with an infra-red ear thermometer) is optimal between100.0 and 100.5°F, and should not exceed 101°F. If the temperature inside the egg is too high (and as
a consequence the temperature of the shell gets above 100-100.5°F)
When embryos are experiencing higher temperature in the egg, they have more problems with usingthe yolk and converting it into body tissue. The yolk residue remains big, and the “real” chick (chick without the yolk) is relatively small. If we weigh the chicks, we do not notice this effect, as we are weighing chicks including their residual yolk sac. If we take out the yolk and then weigh the chick, or if HATCHTECH INCUBATION TECHNOLOGY l BIGG EGGS GIVE BIG CHICKS, DON’T THEY?we measure the length of the chick as an indicator for its development, we see that bigger eggs give
bigger total chick weight, but that a lot of the weight is contributed by the yolk. The actual real chick(without the yolk) is not as big as we expect and is sometimes even smaller than the chick from a breeder flock 10 or 20 weeks younger.
Small chicks with large residual yolks have more problems closing their navels over that big yolk,resulting in bad navels and navel-yolk sac infection. The late deads are increasing, as the hightemperatures will kill some of the embryos. The embryos that were not killed had at least a hard timeduring the last days, resulting in a reduced vitality.
Big vs small eggs
If we set all eggs, big or small, at the same machine temperature, the bigger eggs will experience a higher temperature inside the egg, above the optimum.
The reason for that is that the temperature inside the egg is the result of the balance between heat production on one side and heat loss on the other side. Bigger eggs containing bigger embryos will produce more heat, simply because there is more embryo mass in there. On the other side, bigger eggs have more problems of loosing that heat. Eggs loose heat from the surface of the shell to the environment, like the radiator in a car. Bigger eggs have more total shell surface, but per gram of egg
the shell surface is reduced, making it more difficult for the eggs to loose heat.
Besides that, bigger eggs are more “packed together” in an incubator, especially when they are in a turned position. This blocks the air flow over the eggs, and air flow is one of the most important aspects in cooling the eggs.
Due to this, bigger eggs normally have a higher temperature, especially when the temperature of the machine is not adjusted but set on an “average” egg size.
Adjusting incubation to egg size
To overcome these problems, we must give the embryos in the bigger eggs the same temperature asthe embryos in the smaller eggs. If we incubate all the eggs at the same machine temperature, bigger eggs will have a higher temperature resulting in a reduced quality. To control this, we have to adjust the temperature profiles, giving embryos in bigger eggs the same temperature inside the shell as smaller eggs. That means that we have to increase the heat loss from bigger eggs in the second half
of the incubation period, either by dropping the temperature more severe or by increasing the air flow over the eggs.
If we incubate in a single stage machine, the starting temperature of the eggs, until about 8-10 days of age, is identical for big and small eggs (young and old breeder flocks). Until that moment, eggs do not produce a lot of heat and the temperature in the egg will be close to the temperature of the shell. And as embryos need a similar temperature in the egg, regardless of the egg size, big eggs and small
eggs need the same air temperature at the start, when no heat is produced inside the egg yet.
If the incubation process continues, eggs will produce more heat, and temperature has to be dropped.Because bigger eggs produce more heat and have more problems loosing that heat, the temperature has to be dropped more severe on these eggs. This means that if the temperature of small eggs is dropped from approximately 99.7°F at 10 days to 99.2°F at 18 days, we have to drop the temperature in the machine with the big eggs more. It’s a bit difficult to say how much, as this will depend as well
on the actual size of the egg as on the type of machine used, but dropping to at least half a degree lower then for small eggs is the minimum. That means that if small eggs end their air temperature at 99.2°F at 18 days, big eggs should drop to at least 98.7°F at 18 days. At the same time, it might be necessary for the big eggs to start dropping the temperature also a bit earlier, for instance at 9 or 8
days instead of 10 days. It’s important to start dropping the temperature early enough, because ones eggs are overheated, it’s almost impossible to repair the damage. Once the chicks are overheated,they slow down in development and heat production. Then the drop in temperature later in incubation has to be done more moderate and careful, to prevent undercooling.
Field situations
In the field we normally use a straight line for dropping the temperature.
This means that if we start for small eggs at 10 days wit 99.7 and we end at 18 days with 99.2, we actually drop the temperature in a straight line over 8 days to the desired temperature.If for the big eggs we want to drop to 98.7 at 18 days and we start with that from day 8 onwards, we drop 1 degree in 10 days, so 0.1 per day.
Checking the incubation process
How do we know if we dropped the temperature enough?
To get a good feeling if the actual temperature scheme is correct, we must systematically check the chick quality. This can be done by checking the yolk residue, the quality of the navel and by checking the length of the day old chick.
If a drop in temperature results in a better developed, longer chicks with less residual yolk and better navel quality, it was the right choice to do. However, checking chick quality and adjusting temperature profiles never stops.